Transmission

 X-linked form
 autosomal recessive form

Etiology

 primary

 secondary

• cardiac malformations
  • mitral incompetence and coarctation of abdominal aorta (MIM.226100)
  • LEOPARD syndrome (MIM.151100)
  • Ebstein's anomaly (#1636604#)

• cardiomyopathy
  • MTTL2 mitochondrial cardiomyopathy (MIM.590055)
  • familial cardiomyopathy with conduction disturbance (MIM.108770)
  • isolated noncompaction of ventricular myocardium (INVM) (MIM.300183)

• viral infections
  • coxsackie virus myocarditis

• metabolic diseases
  • Barth syndrome (cardioskeletal myopathy with neutropenia) (MIM.302060)
  • systemic carnitine deficiency (MIM.212140)
  • Hurler syndrome (mucopolysaccharidosis type IH) (MIM.607014) (#2500843#)
  • mucopolysaccharidosis type VI (#3109796#)

Associations

 communicating hydrocephalus and congenital cataracts (HEC syndrome) (MIM.600559) (#7747788#)
 ulnar agenesis with oligodactyly (MIM.276822) (#2248295#)
 faciocardiorenal syndrome (horseshoe kidneys, severe mental retardation, characteristic facies (broad nasal bridge, large chin, open mouth), and heart defect (conduction defects, cardiac enlargement, endocardial fibroelastosis) (MIM.227280)